Liu Shan (207 - 271), also known as A Dou, was the second emperor of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period and the son of Liu Bei. The specifics of his reign and significant historical milestones are as follows:

I. Time of reign

1. Time of ascension:

Liu Shan ascended to the throne in 223 at the age of 16. His father, Liu Bei, died in 222 after failing in the Battle of Yiling, entrusting Liu Shan to Zhuge Liang on his deathbed.

2. Time of abdication:

In 263, the Wei general Deng Ai launched a surprise attack on Chengdu, leading Liu Shan to surrender, marking the fall of Shu Han. Liu Shan reigned for a total of 40 years (223 - 263).

II. Key phases during the reign

1. The period of Zhuge Liang's regency (223 - 234)

At the beginning of Liu Shan's reign, Zhuge Liang, as Chancellor, took control of military and political power, implemented 'rule of law in Shu,' developed agriculture, and launched several northern expeditions against Cao Wei (such as the 'Six Expeditions to Qishan').

During this period, Liu Shan mainly played the role of a symbolic monarch. Historical records state that he once expressed to Zhuge Liang: 'Politics is by the Ge family, for sacrifices, it is the responsibility of the ruler.'

2. The governance period of Jiang Wan and Fei Yi (234 - 253)

After Zhuge Liang passed away at Wuzhang Plain, Liu Shan gradually took over governance but still relied on heavyweights like Jiang Wan and Fei Yi to maintain national policies.

In this phase, Shu Han transitioned to a strategic defense, reducing large-scale northern expeditions, and the national power was relatively stable.

3. Jiang Wei's northern expeditions and eunuchs' interference in governance (253 - 263)

After Fei Yi was assassinated, Jiang Wei took command of the military and continued the northern expeditions against Cao Wei, but this consumed national power.

In the later years, Liu Shan favored the eunuch Huang Hao, leading to corruption in the court and lax military defenses, which planted the seeds for the downfall of Shu Han.

III. The downfall of Shu Han and Liu Shan's fate

In 263, Wei launched a three-pronged attack on Shu, with Deng Ai crossing the Yinping River, directly approaching Chengdu. Liu Shan, believing in the advice of Qiao Zhou, surrendered without resistance, leading to the fall of Shu Han.

Post-surrender treatment: Liu Shan was relocated to Luoyang and granted the title 'Duke of Anle County.' Sima Zhao once tested whether he missed Shu, to which Liu Shan replied, 'I am happy here and do not think of Shu.' Later generations referred to this as 'happy and not thinking of Shu.'

Death: Liu Shan died in 271 in Luoyang at the age of 64, posthumously honored as 'Duke Si' (Western Jin) and 'Emperor Xiaohuai' (Eastern Jin posthumous title).

IV. Historical evaluation and controversies

1. Traditional view:

Liu Shan is often regarded as a 'mediocre ruler' due to his reliance on powerful ministers, favoritism towards eunuchs, and ultimately his surrender, which has drawn much criticism. (Records of the Three Kingdoms) assesses him as 'a ruler of reason when employing virtuous ministers, but a dark ruler when misled by eunuchs.'

2. Modern reflections:

Some scholars believe that Liu Shan was able to maintain the Shu Han regime for 29 years after Zhuge Liang's death and balanced different factions, which may indicate some political wisdom. His surrender avoided a desperate struggle by the military and civilians in Chengdu, which can also be seen as a pragmatic choice.

Liu Shan reigned for 40 years, making him one of the longest-reigning monarchs of the Three Kingdoms period. Although later generations have mixed opinions about his abilities, his reign profoundly reflects the rise and fall of the Shu Han regime and the practical dilemmas faced by monarchs in chaotic times.

Source: deepseek